Chicago Style citation might seem like the most complex of all citation formats, with its footnotes, endnotes, and two different systems. But here's the secret: once you understand the logic behind Chicago Style, it becomes one of the most flexible and comprehensive citation systems available. Whether you're writing a history paper about the Renaissance or analyzing social movements in the 1960s, Chicago Style gives you the tools to cite virtually any source with precision and clarity.
The beauty of Chicago Style lies in its adaptability. Unlike other citation styles that were designed for specific disciplines, Chicago Style was created to handle the diverse range of sources that historians and social scientists encounter—from ancient manuscripts and government documents to modern websites and social media posts. This flexibility makes it perfect for interdisciplinary research and complex projects that draw from multiple types of sources.
If you're a history or social science student, mastering Chicago Style is essential for your academic success. Not only will it help you cite your sources correctly, but it will also teach you to think critically about the nature and reliability of different types of evidence. By the end of this guide, you'll not only know how to format citations properly, but you'll also understand why certain information is included and how to evaluate sources more effectively.
Understanding Chicago Style: The Two Systems
Chicago Style offers two distinct citation systems, each designed for different types of academic writing. Understanding when and why to use each system is the first step toward mastering Chicago Style citation.
The Notes-Bibliography System (Footnotes/Endnotes)
The notes-bibliography system is the traditional Chicago Style format, widely used in history, literature, and the arts. This system uses footnotes or endnotes to cite sources within the text, with a separate bibliography at the end of the paper.
Key Characteristics:
- Uses superscript numbers in the text (¹, ², ³)
- Corresponding footnotes or endnotes provide full citation information
- Bibliography lists all sources alphabetically
- Allows for extensive commentary and additional information in notes
- Perfect for papers that require detailed source analysis
When to Use:
- History papers and research
- Literary analysis
- Art history and cultural studies
- Any paper requiring extensive source commentary
- When you want to provide additional context or analysis
The Author-Date System
The author-date system is similar to APA style and is commonly used in the social sciences. This system uses parenthetical citations in the text, with a reference list at the end.
Key Characteristics:
- Uses parenthetical citations (Smith 2023, 45)
- Reference list provides full bibliographic information
- More concise than the notes-bibliography system
- Better for papers with many citations
- Easier to read for some audiences
When to Use:
- Sociology and political science papers
- Anthropology and cultural studies
- Some history papers (depending on professor preference)
- When you have many citations and want to keep the text clean
- When your professor specifically requests this format
Getting Started: Basic Formatting Rules
Before we dive into specific examples, let's cover the fundamental formatting rules that apply to both Chicago Style systems.
General Formatting Guidelines
Font and Spacing:
- Use a readable font (Times New Roman, 12-point is standard)
- Double-space your entire paper
- Use 1-inch margins on all sides
- Indent paragraphs 0.5 inches
Page Numbers:
- Number pages in the top right corner
- Start numbering from the first page of text (not the title page)
Title Page:
- Center the title about one-third down the page
- Include your name, course information, and date below the title
- No page number on the title page
Bibliography/Reference List Formatting
Notes-Bibliography System:
- Title: "Bibliography" (centered)
- Single-space entries, double-space between entries
- Use hanging indent (first line flush left, subsequent lines indented)
- Alphabetize by author's last name
Author-Date System:
- Title: "References" (centered)
- Single-space entries, double-space between entries
- Use hanging indent
- Alphabetize by author's last name
The Notes-Bibliography System: A Complete Guide
The notes-bibliography system is the most traditional and comprehensive Chicago Style format. Let's break it down step by step.
How Footnotes Work
Footnotes appear at the bottom of each page and provide complete citation information. The first time you cite a source, include all the relevant details. For subsequent citations, you can use shortened forms.
First Citation (Full Form): ¹ John Smith, The History of Modern Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2023), 45.
Subsequent Citations (Short Form): ² Smith, History of Modern Europe, 67. ³ Ibid., 89. (Use "ibid." when citing the same source as the immediately preceding note)
Common Source Types in Notes-Bibliography System
Books
Single Author: ¹ John Smith, The History of Modern Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2023), 45.
Multiple Authors: ² Sarah Johnson and Michael Brown, Social Movements in the 1960s (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2022), 123.
Edited Book: ³ Robert Wilson, ed., The Renaissance Reader (New York: Penguin Books, 2021), 78.
Chapter in Edited Book: ⁴ Mary Davis, "Women in the Renaissance," in The Renaissance Reader, ed. Robert Wilson (New York: Penguin Books, 2021), 145-167.
Journal Articles
Print Journal: ⁵ Jennifer Lee, "The Impact of Social Media on Political Participation," American Journal of Sociology 128, no. 3 (2023): 234-256.
Online Journal: ⁶ David Chen, "Digital Archives and Historical Research," Journal of Digital Humanities 12, no. 2 (2023): 45-67, https://doi.org/10.1234/jdh.2023.12.2.45.
Websites and Online Sources
Website with Author: ⁷ Sarah Martinez, "Understanding Primary Sources," History Department, University of California, last modified March 15, 2023, https://history.uc.edu/primary-sources.
Website without Author: ⁸ "The Civil Rights Movement," National Archives, accessed April 10, 2023, https://www.archives.gov/civil-rights.
Archival Materials
Manuscript Collection: ⁹ Letter from John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, March 15, 1801, Adams Family Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston.
Government Document: ¹⁰ U.S. Congress, House, Report on Civil Rights Legislation, 89th Cong., 1st sess., 1965, H. Doc. 123.
Bibliography Format (Notes-Bibliography System)
The bibliography provides a complete list of all sources cited in your paper, organized alphabetically by author's last name.
Books: Smith, John. The History of Modern Europe. New York: Oxford University Press, 2023.
Johnson, Sarah, and Michael Brown. Social Movements in the 1960s. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2022.
Wilson, Robert, ed. The Renaissance Reader. New York: Penguin Books, 2021.
Journal Articles: Lee, Jennifer. "The Impact of Social Media on Political Participation." American Journal of Sociology 128, no. 3 (2023): 234-256.
Chen, David. "Digital Archives and Historical Research." Journal of Digital Humanities 12, no. 2 (2023): 45-67. https://doi.org/10.1234/jdh.2023.12.2.45.
Websites: Martinez, Sarah. "Understanding Primary Sources." History Department, University of California. Last modified March 15, 2023. https://history.uc.edu/primary-sources.
National Archives. "The Civil Rights Movement." Accessed April 10, 2023. https://www.archives.gov/civil-rights.
The Author-Date System: A Complete Guide
The author-date system is more concise than the notes-bibliography system and is often preferred in the social sciences. Here's how to use it effectively.
How In-Text Citations Work
In-text citations appear in parentheses and include the author's last name, publication year, and page number (if applicable).
Basic Format: (Smith 2023, 45)
Multiple Authors: (Johnson and Brown 2022, 123)
No Page Number: (Martinez 2023)
Multiple Sources: (Smith 2023, 45; Johnson 2022, 78)
Common Source Types in Author-Date System
Books
Single Author: (Smith 2023, 45)
Multiple Authors: (Johnson and Brown 2022, 123)
Edited Book: (Wilson 2021, 78)
Chapter in Edited Book: (Davis 2021, 145)
Journal Articles
Print Journal: (Lee 2023, 234)
Online Journal: (Chen 2023, 45)
Websites and Online Sources
Website with Author: (Martinez 2023)
Website without Author: (National Archives 2023)
Reference List Format (Author-Date System)
The reference list provides complete bibliographic information for all sources cited in your paper.
Books: Smith, John. 2023. The History of Modern Europe. New York: Oxford University Press.
Johnson, Sarah, and Michael Brown. 2022. Social Movements in the 1960s. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wilson, Robert, ed. 2021. The Renaissance Reader. New York: Penguin Books.
Journal Articles: Lee, Jennifer. 2023. "The Impact of Social Media on Political Participation." American Journal of Sociology 128 (3): 234-256.
Chen, David. 2023. "Digital Archives and Historical Research." Journal of Digital Humanities 12 (2): 45-67. https://doi.org/10.1234/jdh.2023.12.2.45.
Websites: Martinez, Sarah. 2023. "Understanding Primary Sources." History Department, University of California. Last modified March 15. https://history.uc.edu/primary-sources.
National Archives. 2023. "The Civil Rights Movement." Accessed April 10. https://www.archives.gov/civil-rights.
Specialized Sources: Archival Materials and Historical Documents
One of Chicago Style's greatest strengths is its ability to handle the diverse range of sources that historians and social scientists encounter. Here's how to cite some of the most common specialized sources.
Archival Materials
Manuscript Collections: ¹ Letter from John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, March 15, 1801, Adams Family Papers, box 2, folder 15, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston.
Government Records: ² U.S. Department of State, "Memorandum on Vietnam Policy," January 15, 1968, RG 59, Records of the Department of State, National Archives, College Park, MD.
Personal Papers: ³ Diary entry, March 10, 1965, Martin Luther King Jr. Papers, box 45, folder 8, King Center, Atlanta, GA.
Historical Documents
Constitutional Documents: ⁴ U.S. Constitution, art. 1, sec. 8.
Treaties: ⁵ Treaty of Versailles, June 28, 1919, art. 231.
Court Cases: ⁶ Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
Newspapers and Periodicals
Historical Newspapers: ⁷ "Women Win the Vote," New York Times, August 19, 1920, 1.
Magazine Articles: ⁸ John F. Kennedy, "The Soft American," Sports Illustrated, December 26, 1960, 15-17.
Digital Archives and Online Collections
Digitized Archival Materials: ⁹ "Declaration of Independence," July 4, 1776, National Archives, accessed March 15, 2023, https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/declaration.
Online Exhibitions: ¹⁰ "The Civil Rights Movement," Smithsonian National Museum of American History, accessed April 10, 2023, https://americanhistory.si.edu/civil-rights.
Common Challenges and Solutions
Chicago Style citation can present some unique challenges, especially when dealing with complex or unusual sources. Here are solutions to the most common problems students encounter.
Missing Information
Problem: What do you do when a source is missing key information like publication date or author?
Solution: Use the information you have and indicate what's missing with appropriate abbreviations.
Example: ¹ Anonymous, Untitled Manuscript (n.d.), Special Collections, University Library.
Multiple Editions
Problem: How do you cite a book that has been reprinted multiple times?
Solution: Include the original publication date and the edition you're using.
Example: ¹ Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto (1848; repr., New York: Penguin Books, 1967), 45.
Translated Works
Problem: How do you cite a work that has been translated?
Solution: Include both the original author and the translator.
Example: ¹ Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), 123.
Interviews and Oral Histories
Problem: How do you cite interviews or oral history materials?
Solution: Include the type of interview, date, and location of the recording.
Example: ¹ Interview with Rosa Parks, conducted by Studs Terkel, March 15, 1956, Studs Terkel Radio Archive, Chicago History Museum.
Social Media and Digital Sources
Problem: How do you cite tweets, Facebook posts, or other social media content?
Solution: Include the platform, username, and date of access.
Example: ¹ @BarackObama, "Today we celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Civil Rights Act," Twitter, July 2, 2014, https://twitter.com/barackobama/status/484601128977473536.
Formatting Your Paper: A Step-by-Step Guide
Now that you understand how to cite sources, let's walk through the process of formatting your entire paper in Chicago Style.
Title Page
Your title page should include:
- Title of your paper (centered, about one-third down the page)
- Your name
- Course name and number
- Instructor's name
- Date
Example:
The Impact of Social Media on Political Participation
John Smith
History 301: Modern American History
Professor Johnson
December 15, 2023
First Page of Text
- Start with your title (centered)
- Begin your first paragraph
- Use footnotes for citations (if using notes-bibliography system)
Footnotes
- Place footnotes at the bottom of each page
- Use superscript numbers in the text
- Single-space footnotes, double-space between them
- Use hanging indent for long footnotes
Bibliography/Reference List
- Start on a new page
- Center the title ("Bibliography" or "References")
- Alphabetize by author's last name
- Use hanging indent
- Single-space entries, double-space between entries
Tips for Success
Mastering Chicago Style citation takes practice, but these tips will help you succeed.
Start Early
Don't wait until the last minute to format your citations. Start collecting and formatting your sources as you research.
Use Templates
Create templates for common source types. This will save you time and ensure consistency.
Keep Detailed Records
When researching, record all the information you'll need for citations. It's much easier to have too much information than too little.
Proofread Carefully
Always proofread your citations for accuracy and consistency. Small errors can undermine your credibility.
Ask for Help
Don't hesitate to ask your professor, librarian, or writing center for help if you're unsure about citation formatting.
Use Citation Tools
Tools like Sourcely can help you format citations correctly and save time. However, always double-check the output for accuracy.
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Even experienced writers make mistakes with Chicago Style citation. Here are the most common errors to avoid.
Inconsistent Formatting
Make sure all your citations follow the same format. Inconsistency makes your work look unprofessional.
Missing Information
Include all the information required for each source type. Incomplete citations are frustrating for readers.
Incorrect Punctuation
Pay attention to punctuation marks. They're not just decorative—they serve important functions in citations.
Mixing Systems
Don't mix the notes-bibliography and author-date systems in the same paper. Choose one and stick with it.
Overusing "Ibid."
Use "ibid." only when citing the same source as the immediately preceding note. Don't use it for sources that appeared several notes ago.
Tools and Resources
There are many tools and resources available to help you master Chicago Style citation.
Citation Generators
Sourcely: Our AI-powered platform can help you find credible sources and generate properly formatted Chicago Style citations. Simply input your source information, and Sourcely will format it correctly for both the notes-bibliography and author-date systems.
Zotero: A free reference management tool that can automatically generate Chicago Style citations and bibliographies. It also helps you organize your research and collaborate with others.
Mendeley: Another free tool that combines reference management with social networking for researchers. It can generate citations and help you discover new sources.
Style Guides
The Chicago Manual of Style: The official guide to Chicago Style. Available in print and online, it provides comprehensive guidelines for every type of source.
Purdue OWL: The Online Writing Lab at Purdue University provides free, comprehensive guides to Chicago Style with examples and practice exercises.
Chicago Style Quick Guide: A condensed version of the full manual, perfect for quick reference.
Word Processing Tools
Most word processors, including Microsoft Word and Google Docs, have built-in citation tools that can help you format Chicago Style references correctly.
Conclusion
Chicago Style citation might seem complex at first, but it's actually one of the most flexible and comprehensive citation systems available. Whether you're writing a history paper about ancient Rome or analyzing social movements in the 1960s, Chicago Style gives you the tools to cite virtually any source with precision and clarity.
The key to success is understanding the logic behind the system and practicing consistently. Start with the basics, use the tools available to you, and don't be afraid to ask for help when you need it. With time and experience, you'll develop the citation skills that will serve you throughout your academic and professional career.
Remember, every great historian and social scientist started exactly where you are now—learning the fundamentals of academic writing and citation. The difference between a good paper and a great one often comes down to these small details that show you understand and respect the scholarly process.
So embrace the complexity of Chicago Style, master its conventions, and let your citations enhance rather than distract from your brilliant ideas. Your future self—and your professors—will thank you for the effort you put into getting it right.
The world of historical and social science research is rich and diverse, and Chicago Style citation gives you the tools to navigate it with confidence and professionalism. Whether you're citing a medieval manuscript or a modern website, you now have the knowledge and skills to do it correctly and effectively.
