When you're writing a research paper, sometimes the most valuable information comes from sources that don't fit neatly into traditional academic categories. Maybe you conducted an email interview with an expert in your field, had a phone conversation with a local business owner, or discovered a personal letter in an archive that provides crucial insight into your topic. These sources can add depth and authenticity to your research, but they also present unique challenges when it comes to citation.
Unlike published books or journal articles, interviews, personal communications, and unpublished sources don't have standard publication information like ISBNs, volume numbers, or page ranges. They often exist only in your personal collection or in private archives, making them difficult for readers to verify or access. This is why proper citation becomes even more important—you need to provide enough information for readers to understand the source's credibility and context, while also respecting the privacy and wishes of the people involved.
The good news is that all major citation styles have specific guidelines for handling these unique source types. Whether you're using APA, MLA, or Chicago style, there are established formats that will help you cite these sources professionally and ethically. The key is understanding the specific requirements for each type of source and each citation style, so you can present your research with confidence and integrity.
In this comprehensive guide, we'll walk you through everything you need to know about citing interviews, personal communications, and unpublished sources. We'll cover the different types of sources you might encounter, the specific formatting requirements for each citation style, and the ethical considerations that should guide your approach to using these materials in your academic work.
Understanding Different Types of Personal Sources
Before we dive into the specific citation formats, let's take a moment to understand the different types of personal sources you might encounter in your research and how they differ from traditional published materials.
Interviews
Interviews are one of the most common types of personal sources in academic research. They can take many forms and serve different purposes in your research:
Structured Interviews: These are formal interviews with predetermined questions, often conducted for research purposes. They might be face-to-face, over the phone, or via video call.
Email Interviews: Written exchanges where you send questions via email and receive responses in the same format. These are becoming increasingly common, especially for busy professionals or international contacts.
Informal Conversations: Casual discussions that provide valuable insights, even if they weren't originally intended as research interviews.
Expert Consultations: Conversations with professionals in your field who provide specialized knowledge or perspective on your topic.
Personal Communications
Personal communications include any private correspondence or conversation that isn't publicly available:
Email Correspondence: Private email exchanges with experts, professionals, or other individuals relevant to your research.
Phone Conversations: Verbal discussions that aren't recorded or transcribed.
Text Messages: Digital communications via SMS or messaging apps.
Social Media Direct Messages: Private communications through platforms like Twitter, LinkedIn, or Facebook.
Personal Letters: Written correspondence, whether physical or digital, that isn't published or publicly available.
Unpublished Sources
Unpublished sources are materials that exist but haven't been formally published:
Manuscripts: Draft versions of papers, books, or other works that haven't been published yet.
Theses and Dissertations: Graduate student work that may not be widely available.
Conference Presentations: Papers or presentations given at academic conferences that haven't been published in proceedings.
Archival Materials: Documents, letters, or other materials stored in archives or special collections.
Internal Reports: Company reports, government documents, or other materials not intended for public distribution.
Ethical Considerations: Protecting Your Sources and Yourself
When working with personal sources, ethical considerations become paramount. These sources often involve real people who have shared personal information, professional insights, or private communications with you. How you handle these sources can impact both your academic integrity and the people who have trusted you with their information.
Obtaining Proper Consent
Before using any personal communication or interview in your research, you must obtain proper consent from the source. This isn't just a courtesy—it's an ethical requirement that protects both you and your sources.
Informed Consent: Make sure your sources understand how their information will be used, who will have access to it, and what level of anonymity they can expect. Be clear about whether you'll use their real name or provide anonymity.
Written Permission: For formal interviews, consider asking sources to sign a consent form that outlines how their information will be used. This protects both parties and provides documentation of permission.
Ongoing Communication: Keep your sources informed about your research progress and let them know if you plan to use their information in ways you didn't originally discuss.
Respecting Privacy and Confidentiality
Personal sources often involve sensitive information that sources may not want widely shared:
Anonymity Options: Offer sources the option to remain anonymous or use pseudonyms in your work. This is especially important for sources discussing sensitive topics or providing insider information.
Selective Quoting: Be thoughtful about which parts of personal communications you include in your research. Not everything needs to be shared, even if it's relevant to your topic.
Context Preservation: When you do quote from personal sources, make sure you preserve the original context and meaning. Don't cherry-pick quotes that misrepresent the source's intent.
Verifying Information
Personal sources can provide valuable insights, but they also require careful verification:
Cross-Reference: When possible, verify information from personal sources against published materials or other sources.
Source Credibility: Consider the expertise and reliability of your personal sources. Are they qualified to speak on the topic? Do they have any potential biases?
Documentation: Keep detailed records of your personal communications, including dates, participants, and key points discussed. This helps with both citation and verification.
APA Style: Citing Personal Sources
APA style has specific guidelines for citing personal communications and unpublished sources. The key principle is that these sources are cited only in-text, not in the reference list, because they can't be retrieved by readers.
Personal Communications in APA
Personal communications in APA style include interviews, emails, phone conversations, and other private communications. These are cited only in-text because they can't be accessed by readers.
Format: (Author, personal communication, date)
Examples:
- (J. Smith, personal communication, March 15, 2023)
- (Dr. Martinez, personal communication, April 2, 2023)
In narrative form:
- According to J. Smith (personal communication, March 15, 2023), the new policy will be implemented next quarter.
- Dr. Martinez (personal communication, April 2, 2023) explained that the research findings were preliminary.
Interviews in APA
For formal interviews that you conducted, APA provides specific formatting guidelines:
Format: (Interviewee, personal communication, date)
Examples:
- (A. Johnson, personal communication, March 20, 2023)
- (Professor Williams, personal communication, April 5, 2023)
Important Notes:
- Use the interviewee's real name unless they requested anonymity
- Include the specific date of the interview
- Don't include interviews in your reference list
- If you conducted multiple interviews with the same person, include the specific date for each citation
Unpublished Sources in APA
For unpublished sources that can be retrieved by others (like theses or conference presentations), include them in your reference list:
Unpublished Thesis: Author, A. A. (Year). Title of thesis [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University Name.
Conference Presentation: Author, A. A. (Year, Month). Title of presentation [Conference presentation]. Conference Name, City, State.
Manuscript in Preparation: Author, A. A. (Year). Title of manuscript [Manuscript in preparation]. University Name.
MLA Style: Citing Personal Sources
MLA style handles personal communications differently from APA, often including more detailed information about the source and context.
Personal Communications in MLA
MLA includes personal communications in the Works Cited list when they're important to your research:
Email: Author Last Name, First Name. "Subject of email." Received by [Your Name], Date.
Example: Smith, John. "Re: Research Questions." Received by Jane Doe, 15 Mar. 2023.
Phone Conversation: Author Last Name, First Name. Telephone interview. Date.
Example: Johnson, Mary. Telephone interview. 20 Mar. 2023.
Interviews in MLA
For interviews you conducted, MLA provides specific formatting:
Personal Interview: Interviewee Last Name, First Name. Personal interview. Date.
Example: Williams, Robert. Personal interview. 25 Mar. 2023.
Published Interview (if the interview was published somewhere): Interviewer Last Name, First Name. "Interview Title." Publication Name, Date, pages.
Unpublished Sources in MLA
MLA includes unpublished sources in the Works Cited list with detailed information:
Unpublished Thesis: Author Last Name, First Name. "Title of Thesis." Year. Dissertation, University Name.
Example: Brown, Sarah. "The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance." 2023. Dissertation, University of California.
Manuscript: Author Last Name, First Name. "Title of Manuscript." Unpublished manuscript, Year.
Example: Davis, Michael. "Climate Change and Urban Planning." Unpublished manuscript, 2023.
Chicago Style: Citing Personal Sources
Chicago style offers the most flexibility for citing personal sources, with detailed guidelines for different types of materials.
Personal Communications in Chicago
Chicago style handles personal communications through footnotes and bibliography entries:
Email: Author First Name Last Name, email message to author, Date.
Example: John Smith, email message to author, March 15, 2023.
Phone Conversation: Author First Name Last Name, telephone conversation with author, Date.
Example: Mary Johnson, telephone conversation with author, March 20, 2023.
Interviews in Chicago
For interviews, Chicago provides specific formatting:
Personal Interview: Interviewee First Name Last Name, interview by author, Date.
Example: Robert Williams, interview by author, March 25, 2023.
Published Interview: Interviewer First Name Last Name, "Interview Title," Publication Name, Date.
Unpublished Sources in Chicago
Chicago style includes unpublished sources in the bibliography with comprehensive information:
Unpublished Thesis: Author Last Name, First Name. "Title of Thesis." PhD diss., University Name, Year.
Example: Brown, Sarah. "The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance." PhD diss., University of California, 2023.
Manuscript: Author Last Name, First Name. "Title of Manuscript." Unpublished manuscript, Year.
Example: Davis, Michael. "Climate Change and Urban Planning." Unpublished manuscript, 2023.
Special Cases and Complex Scenarios
Sometimes you'll encounter personal sources that don't fit neatly into standard categories. Here's how to handle some common complex scenarios.
Anonymous Sources
When sources request anonymity, you need to balance their privacy with your need to establish credibility:
APA: (Anonymous source, personal communication, date) MLA: Anonymous. Personal interview. Date. Chicago: Anonymous, interview by author, Date.
Important Considerations:
- Only use anonymous sources when absolutely necessary
- Provide as much context as possible without revealing identity
- Consider the credibility implications of anonymous sources
- Document your reasons for using anonymous sources
Multiple Communications with the Same Person
When you have multiple communications with the same person, you need to distinguish between them:
APA: Include the specific date for each communication
- (J. Smith, personal communication, March 15, 2023)
- (J. Smith, personal communication, April 2, 2023)
MLA: Include the specific date and type of communication
- Smith, John. "Initial Research Questions." Received by Jane Doe, 15 Mar. 2023.
- Smith, John. "Follow-up Discussion." Received by Jane Doe, 2 Apr. 2023.
Chicago: Use specific dates and context
- John Smith, email message to author, March 15, 2023.
- John Smith, telephone conversation with author, April 2, 2023.
Group Communications
When citing communications involving multiple people:
APA: (J. Smith et al., personal communication, date) MLA: Smith, John, et al. "Group Discussion." Received by Jane Doe, Date. Chicago: John Smith et al., email message to author, Date.
Archived Personal Materials
For personal materials found in archives:
APA: Include in reference list with archive information
- Author, A. A. (Year). Title of document [Archival material]. Archive Name, Location.
MLA: Include detailed archive information
- Author Last Name, First Name. "Title of Document." Date. Collection Name. Archive Name, Location.
Chicago: Include comprehensive archive details
- Author Last Name, First Name. "Title of Document." Date. Collection Name, Archive Name, Location.
Best Practices for Using Personal Sources
Using personal sources effectively requires careful planning and ethical consideration. Here are some best practices to help you make the most of these valuable resources.
Planning Your Approach
Identify Your Needs: Before reaching out to potential sources, clearly identify what information you need and how personal sources will contribute to your research.
Prepare Your Questions: For interviews, prepare thoughtful, open-ended questions that will elicit useful information while respecting your source's time and expertise.
Consider Timing: Be respectful of your sources' schedules and deadlines. Give them plenty of time to respond, especially for email interviews.
Documenting Your Sources
Keep Detailed Records: Maintain comprehensive records of all personal communications, including dates, participants, key points, and any agreements about anonymity or usage.
Transcribe Carefully: If you're transcribing interviews or conversations, be accurate and preserve the original meaning and context.
Organize Your Materials: Create a system for organizing your personal sources so you can easily find and cite them later.
Maintaining Professional Relationships
Follow Up Appropriately: Send thank-you notes or emails to your sources, and consider sharing your final work with them if appropriate.
Respect Boundaries: Honor any requests for anonymity or limitations on how information can be used.
Give Credit Where Due: Always properly cite personal sources and acknowledge their contributions to your research.
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Working with personal sources can be tricky, and there are several common mistakes that can undermine your credibility and ethical standing.
Citation Mistakes
Including Personal Communications in Reference Lists: In APA style, personal communications should only be cited in-text, not in the reference list.
Inconsistent Formatting: Make sure all your personal source citations follow the same format throughout your paper.
Missing Information: Include all required information, such as dates and source names, in your citations.
Ethical Mistakes
Using Information Without Permission: Always obtain proper consent before using personal communications in your research.
Misrepresenting Sources: Don't take quotes out of context or misrepresent what your sources said.
Ignoring Requests for Anonymity: If sources request anonymity, respect their wishes and don't include identifying information.
Practical Mistakes
Poor Documentation: Keep detailed records of all personal communications to avoid confusion later.
Inadequate Verification: Don't rely solely on personal sources without verifying information through other means when possible.
Overusing Personal Sources: While personal sources can be valuable, don't let them dominate your research. Balance them with published sources.
Tools and Resources for Managing Personal Sources
Managing personal sources effectively requires good organization and the right tools. Here are some resources that can help you stay organized and cite properly.
Reference Management Software
Sourcely: Our AI-powered platform can help you organize and cite personal sources alongside traditional academic sources. Simply input the information about your personal communications, and Sourcely will format them correctly for any citation style.
Zotero: This free reference management tool allows you to create custom entry types for personal sources and interviews.
Mendeley: Another free tool that can help you organize personal sources and generate properly formatted citations.
Documentation Tools
Interview Recording Apps: Use apps like Otter.ai or Rev for recording and transcribing interviews.
Note-Taking Software: Tools like Notion, Evernote, or OneNote can help you organize your personal source materials.
Spreadsheet Software: Create spreadsheets to track your personal sources, including dates, participants, and key information.
Style Guides
Official Manuals: Keep copies of the official style guides (APA, MLA, Chicago) for reference when citing personal sources.
Online Resources: Websites like Purdue OWL provide detailed guidance on citing personal sources in different styles.
Conclusion
Citing interviews, personal communications, and unpublished sources doesn't have to be overwhelming. With the right approach and attention to detail, you can use these valuable sources to enhance your research while maintaining the highest standards of academic integrity.
The key to success is understanding that personal sources require special consideration. Unlike published materials, they involve real people who have trusted you with their information, insights, and expertise. By following the guidelines we've outlined and maintaining ethical standards throughout your research process, you can use these sources effectively while protecting both your academic reputation and the people who have helped you.
Remember that proper citation of personal sources serves multiple purposes. It gives credit to your sources, allows readers to understand the context and credibility of your information, and demonstrates your commitment to academic integrity. It also protects you by providing documentation of your research process and the sources you've consulted.
As you continue your academic journey, you'll likely encounter more personal sources that can enrich your research. Whether you're conducting interviews for a senior thesis, corresponding with experts in your field, or discovering unpublished materials in archives, the principles we've discussed will serve you well.
The most important thing to remember is that personal sources are a privilege, not a right. The people who share their time, knowledge, and insights with you are doing you a favor, and it's your responsibility to treat their contributions with respect and professionalism. By following proper citation practices and maintaining ethical standards, you'll not only produce better research but also build relationships that can benefit you throughout your academic and professional career.
So go forth and use personal sources wisely. With the right approach, they can transform your research from good to great, providing insights and perspectives that simply can't be found in published materials. Just remember to cite them properly, respect your sources, and always maintain the highest standards of academic integrity.
